1642-1660: The English civil wars resulted in an Interregnum, during which England was a republic, although not a democracy, ruled by Parliament alone. In 1660, the republic collapsed and the monarchy was restored.

1700s: The late eighteenth century saw the French Revolution and the American Revolution, both of which sought to establish republics in the place of monarchies. The French Revolution was a civil war which toppled the French monarchy. The American Revolution was the revolt of a colony against England, and while the English monarchy survived intact, its colonies in what became the United States were lost.

Late twentieth century: England is governed by a democratically elected parliament. Although the monarchy survives, the Queen, as head of state, has little real political power.

1600s: The seventeenth century saw scientific advances which included William Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood, Isaac Newton's theory...