Overview

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was uncommon for women to be active in the sciences. While most science was still done by men as the century drew to a close, women had found opportunities for work in the physical sciences. New educational opportunities helped women find jobs in astronomy, chemistry, and physics. In addition, women educated themselves or worked with family members to do scientific research and prepare publications in the sciences, either as amateurs—like many of the scientists at the time—or as professional scientists.

Background

During the nineteenth century, women's opportunities to go to school expanded. New colleges gave women the background and skills they needed to perform scientific research and also to find jobs in the sciences (for example, performing calculations at observatories). These colleges also gave women...