Overview

In early farming societies, improved farming methods and a reliable food supply led to permanent settlements. Surplus food not only caused an increase in population. Freed from the all-consuming quest for food, laborers could begin to specialize in activities such as metal-working and weaving, and some jobs became more important than others. A social hierarchy took shape. Writing enabled administrative record keeping and, later, literature.

Background

Technological advance, including writing, beyond the folk society was a necessary condition for cities to take root. But it was not sufficient. Two additional considerations came into play. One was the ability to collect, store, and distribute the agricultural surplus, with all the social organization that implied. The second was a favorable environment in the form of fertile soil for growing crops and a water supply capable of supporting the needs of both agriculture and...