Overview

The makers of mathematics and their modes of practice were transformed during the nineteenth century. New mathematical ideas were publicized in mathematical journals. Professional mathematicians began to meet together to share their research in local societies, which grew into national organizations. At the same time, these mathematicians created opportunities to complete their research as university professors and to train mathematics professionals. Toward the end of the century, an international congress was established. Indeed, by 1900 a growing community of specialized mathematicians cooperated around the world.

Background

Before 1800, mathematicians were generally isolated in their own nations. Mathematicians supported themselves through patronage from nobles or the state, or with their own personal wealth; even Isaac Newton (1642-1727) served as Master of the Mint in London. They generally exchanged ideas sporadically, in private letters or by publishing books containing their life's work. Although...