The earliest surgical operations were probably circumcision (removal of the foreskin of the penis) and trepanation (making a hole in the skull, for release of pressure and/or spirits). Primitive surgical instruments consisted of flint or obsidian knives and saws. Stone Age skulls from around the world have been found with holes from trepanning. Primitive people used knives to remove fingers, and the ancient Mesopotamian cultures practiced surgery to some degree. Small copper Sumerian knives of about 3000 B.C. are believed to be surgical instruments. The Babylonian Code of Hammurabi of about 1700 B.C. mentions bronze lancets--sharp-pointed two-edged instruments used to make small incisions. The Code, however, provided harsh penalties for poor treatment outcomes, so surgery was practiced only sparingly. Likewise, ancient Chinese and Japanese cultures were opposed to cutting into the human body, so surgical instruments were used very little.

By contrast, the ancient Egyptians...