Spatial memory pertains to the spatial structure of outdoor spaces, buildings, rooms, and maps; it includes knowledge of where objects are, of routes from place to place, and of distances and directions between locations. The evolutionary success of humans has depended, in part, on abilities to navigate in unfamiliar territory, to locate sources of food and water, and to be able to return to those sources and to home at a later time. In contemporary societies, people rely on their spatial memories for activities as mundane as reaching out in the morning darkness to shut off an alarm and as consequential as escaping from an office building during a raging fire. The spatial memories of insects, rodents, and nonhuman primates have been investigated extensively (Gallistel, 1990), but this chapter will focus on aspects of human spatial memory.

Route Versus Survey Knowledge

Large-scale environments cannot be viewed in...