SHANGDI. During the Shang dynasty (c. 1550–1050 BCE), prayers and sacrifices were offered to a large number of gods, collectively referred to as di. Regarded as the deified ancestors (real or putative) of the Shang royal clan and high aristocracy, the di were worshiped at regular intervals in accordance with a liturgical calendar. At appropriate times they were also consulted for aid and advice by means of the cracking of oracle bones (i.e., the practice of scapulimancy).

The Shang kings also worshiped a more powerful god, known as Shangdi (High God, or God Above). Owing to the absence of plural forms in Chinese, it is not certain that there was only one god known as Shangdi—the phrase could also mean, collectively, "high gods." But most authorities agree that it was a single deity. Shangdi might also have been regarded in some sense as an ultimate human ancestor...