The scope of this article is in part determined by the following restrictions. (1) Although the development of semantics in the twentieth century equals or surpasses all that was done earlier, it receives very little attention here because the major theories and theorists of this period are thoroughly discussed in other articles. (2) The only semantic theories considered are those developed by Western philosophers; thus, no account is taken of the theories of meaning propounded, for example, by ancient Hindu philosophers or by European grammarians or linguists. (3) Since semantic theories concerning nonlinguistic signs tend to involve considerations of theories of knowledge generally, they are not discussed here except as they may occasionally bear directly on a theory of linguistic meaning. On the other hand, much of what philosophers have had to say about language is discussed here, whether or not it can be precisely described as...