1842-1921

Russian geographer best known for his anarchist political theory, but also as a student of biology. Because of his political views, he spent much of his adult life in exile, mostly in England. He was an advocate of biological evolution, but opposed Darwin's theory of natural selection. He believed that Darwin's theory of natural selection ignored many cooperative aspects of organic life, so he wrote Mutual Aid in 1902 to advance his own theory of evolution by cooperation rather than competition.