In the early twenty-first century, science finds itself caught in a dilemma that is arguably of its own making: Its very success in terms of understanding and controlling nature means that it has given birth to powers that transcend the traditional boundaries between science and society. Rather than being viewed as essentially neutral in terms of values, society increasingly views scientific knowledge as leading to various types of winners and losers. The review criteria for National Science Foundation proposals offer an instructive case study of this increasingly prominent dynamic.

Background

Established in 1950, the National Science Foundation (NSF) is the only federal agency dedicated to the support of education and basic research across all scientific and engineering disciplines, except for the biomedical sciences (which are handled by the National Institutes of Health). Although no authoritative definition exits...