Management is the process of reaching individual and collective goals by working with and through human and nonhuman resources to improve the world. Managerial values include performance effectiveness (achieving goals), operational efficiency (not wasting resources in the process), sustainable innovation (continually improving outputs and processes), and adding value (as measured by stakeholder responsiveness). Good managers demonstrate sound judgment by balancing these four competing but complementary values.

The four values inherent to some degree at all levels of management are embodied in four management models.

Those models focus on rational goals, internal process, human relations, and open systems (Quinn et al. 1995), each of which involves ethical issues that have relevance for the management of science and technology.

Rational Goal Model

The rational goal model, which Frederick Taylor (1856–1915) introduced at the beginning of the twentieth century...