Overview

The invention of the electronic pocket calculator in the 1960s ignited a world-wide microelectronics revolution. Hand-held calculating machines, portable and accurate, subsequently became valuable fixtures in science, engineering, business, and education.

Background

Calculating machines date back to ancient Babylonian devices used to perform rote mathematical operations. Although many hand-crank and machine-type devices existed (the venerable keypunch cash register is such a mechanical calculator), prior to the 1960s, calculating machines were universally heavy, cumbersome, and expensive. The more sophisticated models—those able to perform more than just fundamental mathematical operations—were available only to government, the military, and a few large businesses. Although producing accurate results, the large, fixed-site machines required specialized training and were reserved for elaborate calculations, such as those carried out during the creation of the first atomic bombs by Project Trinity at Los Alamos during the 1940s, and...