Overview

For building design and construction, the eighteenth century represents a period of transition. Engineers and architects, formerly lumped together, assumed separate identities and functions. The increasing complexity of buildings and bridges helped to spur training for architects, engineers, and builders, who until then had little formal instruction. Substituting design and calculation where rule of thumb and practical experience had been the order of the day meant that expert knowledge could be codified and formulated. These developments helped to give substance to Enlightenment notions of progress.

Background

In 1768 John Smeaton (1724-1792) described himself as a civil engineer and began a new vocation. From the earliest times up through the Middle Ages, public works such as the construction of aqueducts and harbors were carried out by armies and their captives. The...