Multi-Ethnic and Multi-Cultural Kingdoms. The large empires of West Africa facilitated trade and political and cultural exchanges among a diverse population. These empires also encouraged millions of people to transcend territorial limits imposed by ethnicity and other primordial ties. Some kingdoms and empires were created through the initiative of a particular ethnic group, but ultimately most of these political entities were a mosaic of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. In some cases, conquered peoples were assimilated by their conquerors. They adopted the cultures, languages, and religions of their rulers. In many cases, however, conquered peoples were allowed to maintain local authority while paying tributes to the new imperial rulers and acknowledging their overlordship. These peoples usually retained not only their political institutions but also their cultures, languages, and religions. The centralized administrative systems instituted by some West African states were...