Geographical Challenges. To maintain itself and benefit its constituency, a successful state system has to overcome challenges from its natural geography over a sustained period of time. An understanding of the character and strength of a state system is always enhanced by paying attention to how it has handled its environmental issues. The early states of West Africa were created and maintained in the face of varied and adverse conditions. West Africa has some of the hottest temperatures in the world, as well as relentless dust storms and abrupt climate changes, which its people have faced with sustained environmental heroism. To create village collectives and Sudanic empires, the population had to be creative and vigilant. Large areas of virtually free, relatively arable land were often available, and population overcrowding was rarely an issue, as it often was in Europe during the same period. Yet, other challenging environmental circumstances...