Andrew Johnson (1808-1875; see entry in volume 2) delivered his last annual message to Congress in December of 1868, just six months after he had survived an impeachment trial. His administration had been marked by bitter, losing struggles with Congress.

Johnson wanted a moderate approach to the Southern states that had seceded and fought against the Union in the Civil War (1861-65). Congress, dominated by a powerful group of Republicans, wanted much harsher treatment toward the former Confederate states. The Congressional program won out.

Johnson took the opportunity of his final annual message to point out how Congressional actions had prolonged problems between the North and South and worsened the nation. He covered several other subjects—the national debt, foreign relations, and topics he hoped Congress would address the following year—but his ringing denunciation (criticism) of Congress' Reconstruction Plan stood out. It showed...