Death and Succession. The Prophet Muhammad's death immediately cut off the Muslim community from its direct, personal divine source of inspiration, revelation, and guidance. The Prophet had not acknowledged anyone else as a prophet or potential prophet, and the Qur'an seems to foreclose that possibility for eternity (33:40). The community met and elected one of the older Companions, Abu Bakr (ruled 632-634), to hold sovereignty in Madinah. At first, perhaps, Abu Bakr bore the title of amir (commander), but under the rule of his successor, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (ruled 634-644), the title became amir al-mu'minin (commander of the believers), a more exalted label meant to clarify the superiority of the ruler's authority over that of any other. More generally, the title khalifah (caliph), or deputy, also came into use for the ruler, probably because the Prophet had always appointed...