In 1880 international experts ranked the U.S. Navy twelfth in the world, sounding a wake up call for the government. The following year a naval advisory board recommended the construction of a new fleet of steel-bottomed ships. In 1883, during the administration of Chester Arthur (1881-1885), Congress approved funding for a shipbuilding program, and the following year the U.S. Naval War College was founded in Newport, Rhode Island, to provide naval officers with postgraduate training in international law, history, and technical subjects useful as the navy was modernized. During Grover Cleveland's first term (1885-1889), Undersecretary of the Navy William Whitney reorganized naval administration to make it more modern and efficient. He coordinated the work of the various bureaus involved in purchasing materials and equipment, destroyed antiquated ships, and oversaw the construction of the new fleet. When Whitney left office...