Public Speaking. The participatory nature of Athens's democracy required its citizens to be proficient public speakers. Although some leading figures clearly spoke more than others, every citizen had to be able, in theory at least, to promote and defend himself and his positions, whether in the assembly, the courts, or at the village meetings. Oratory was clearly of critical importance in Athens. Beginning in the fifth century B.C.E., Athens attracted many professional intellectuals, or sophists, such as Protagoras and Gorgias who, among other things, taught public speaking for a price. Many leading citizens led the community both as speakers and generals; examples include Themistocles, Aristides, Nicias, Alcibiades, Cleon, and Pericles.

Specialization. In the fourth century, an era of specialization began when the military leaders were no longer the prominent speakers. New laws recognized distinct roles for generals (strategoi...