Monarchies. In 1750 all the major states of Europe except Great Britain were headed by monarchies in which one man theoretically held absolute authority. Over the course of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries all of these monarchies would face serious challenges to their power. Ultimately, most of these challenges were the result of the Industrial Revolution's impact upon European society. Despite the presence of royal families at the head of the governments of the most powerful states of Europe, there was considerable variation among European monarchies.

Absolutism. France is the classic example of royal absolutism in theory and practice. Here the king theoretically held all the political power in the kingdom. He promulgated laws and conducted foreign policy by the grace of God and without the consent of his subjects. His administration and officials existed merely to carry out his will. In practice the king's power was...