Competing Theories of Learning.

As the new century began, educators in the United States faced two key questions regarding learning and teaching: 1) How do children learn? and 2) What knowledge is of most value? Disagreements over these fundamental questions consumed both theorists and practitioners, and an intense struggle over competing theories ensued. Eventually, from this intellectual clash, a new way of thinking about learning emerged, one with profound consequences for the future of education in the United States.

The Mind as Muscle.

Traditionalists adhered to the theory of mental discipline, which maintained that the human mind was composed of separate and distinct faculties, including reasoning, memory, perception, and imagination. Sometimes referred to as mental disciplinarians, these educators argued that just as physical muscles were strengthened by physical exercise, so the faculties of the mind were strengthened by mental exercise. In their...