With the conclusion of the Arrow War (1860), China realized that her position was challenged by new forces from the West. Her supreme power was shattered, her material resources were limited and her territories were exposed to foreign aggression. Moreover, China at the same time suffered from government disintegration, financial chaos, corruption, natural disasters and peasant revolts. Some conscientious officials came to realize immediate measures had to be taken to strengthen the country and to adjust her to the modern world. Therefore a series of reform movements were carried out for the sake of internal re-construction and national defense.

However, through out the reform movements, there were voices from different classes in society either supporting or opposing the changes. In general, the attitudes of people can be divided into three periods. During the Tongzhi Restoration and Self-strengthening period, the force of continuity, that is, people preferring the traditional belief...