The revolutions for independence in Spanish America were sudden, violent, and universal. Fifteen years after Napoleon invaded Spain (1808), Spain only retained Cuba and Puerto Rico. However, alienation had been a long process. Creoles preferred to be called "Americans," not Spaniards. Spanish America was subject in the late 18th century to a new imperialism--administration reform, defense reorganized, commerce revived. By the end of the 17th century Span. America had emancipated itself from its initial dependence on Spain. Creole elites and landowners dominated. Living more for itself, America gave less to Spain. For example, Mexico began to reorient its economy to livestock and agriculture and less to mining, and it began to supply its own manufactured goods. Thus more American money for Americas. Renewed imperial control began after 1765, as metropolitan Spain under Charles III (Bourbon) becomes more active. As the Peruian Viceroy put it, "The security of the Americas must...