(1) The cause that bulks largest is the inadequate wages of a considerable portion of the lowest class.  It is obviously impossible to support the average family of five in decency, not to say in health, efficiency, or comfort, with an income of, say, less than a thousand dollars a year, as prices go at time of writing (1914).  Yet great numbers of families at present have to exist somehow upon less, even much less.  Five million adult male workers in this country receive less than six hundred dollars a year for their work.[Footnote:  Cf.  Professor Fairchild’s comments in Forum, vol. 52, p. 49 (July, 1914).] Even when mothers work who ought to be at home tending the children, even when children work who ought to be in school, the total income is often miserably inadequate.  Yet there is ample wealth in the country, if it were better distributed, to pay a living wage to every laborer.  By some one of the means which we shall presently discuss, the State must see that all laborers are well enough paid to enable them, while they work, to support in comfort a moderate family.

(2) Involuntary unemployment is the next source of poverty.  This is due to many causes:  the periodic depressions and failures of industries; the introduction of new machinery, throwing out whole classes of laborers; the enormous influx of immigrants and consequent congestion in the cities of unskilled labor; lack of education, or natural stupidity, which render some men too incompetent to retain positions.  Ignorance can be overcome by proper compulsory education laws; all but the actually feeble-minded (who must be cared for in institutions) can, by skillful attention, be taught proficiency in some trade.  And with a more widespread education the work that requires no skill can be left to the hopelessly stupid.  The congestion of labor in the cities [Footnote:  In February, 1914, there were reported to be 350,000 men out of work in New York City (Outlook, March 14, 1914).] can be largely remedied by free state employment bureaus which shall serve as distributing agencies; there is almost always work enough and to spare in some parts of the country, and usually not far away.  But more than this is necessary; the State must see that work is offered every man who is able to work.  All sorts of public works need unskilled laborers in every city of the country; there is digging to be done, shoveling and sweeping and carting.  There are roads to be built, rivers to be dredged, parks to be graded, buildings to be erected, a thousand things to be done.  It will be quite feasible, when wages are generally adequate, for the cities, by general agreement, to offer work to all applicants at a wage so low as not to attract men away from other employments, and yet to enable them to support their families decently.  The low wages given will save the city much money directly, as well as saving it the care of the indigent.  But it will be a feasible plan only when the city’s jobs cease to be used as a means of vote-buying by