England profited by having classes of people sufficiently well educated to form independent opinions and strong enough to carry out the programme dictated by these opinions.  While each of the English colonies sprang from a different motive, all had in common the purpose to form an effective settlement.  The fur trade did France more harm than good.  It deflected her attention from the middle to the northern latitudes and lured her colonists from the land in search of quick profits.  It was the enemy to the home.  On the other hand, the English came to America primarily in search of a home.  Profits they sought, like other people, but they sought them chiefly from the soil.

Thus English ideas took root in America, gained new vitality, and assumed an importance they had not possessed in England for many centuries.  And, while for the moment the organization of the English colonies was not well suited to offensive war, as we may judge from the abortive efforts of Phips and Schuyler, this defect could be corrected.  Arising, as it did arise, from a lack of unity among the colonies, it was even indicative of latent strength.  From one angle, localism seems selfishness and weakness; from another, it shows the vigorous life of separate communities, each self-centred and jealous of its authority because the local instinct is so vitally active.  It only needed time to broaden the outlook and give the English colonies a sense of their common interest.  Virginia, New York, and Massachusetts, by striking their roots each year more deeply into the soil of America, became more and more self-supporting states in everything save name and political allegiance; while New France, which with its austere climate would have developed more slowly in any case, remained dependent on the king’s court.

Thus Frontenac’s task was quite hopeless, if we define it as the effort to overthrow English power in America.  But neither he nor any one of that age defined his duties so widely.  In 1689 Canada was in extremes, with the Iroquois at Lachine and Dongan threatening an attack from New York.  Frontenac’s policy was defensive.  If he struck first, it was because he considered audacity to be his best safeguard.  No one knew better than Frontenac that a successful raid does not mean conquest.

CHAPTER VIII

FRONTENAC’S LAST DAYS

Though the English might withdraw from Quebec, New France always had the Iroquois with her.  We must now pursue the thread of Frontenac’s dealings with the savages from the moment when he replaced Denonville.