had now become a convert to the new religion without receding an inch from his position in favor of universal toleration.  The new religion was, therefore, not an instrument devised by a faction, but had expanded into the atmosphere of the people’s daily life.  Individuals might be executed for claiming to breathe it, but it was itself impalpable to the attacks of despotism.  Yet the Grand Commander persuaded himself that religion had little or nothing to do with the state of the Netherlands.  Nothing more was necessary, he thought; or affected to think, in order to restore tranquillity, than once more to spread the net of a general amnesty.

The Duke of Alva knew better.  That functionary, with whom, before his departure from the provinces, Requesens had been commanded to confer, distinctly stated his opinion that there was no use of talking about pardon.  Brutally, but candidly, he maintained that there was nothing to be done but to continue the process of extermination.  It was necessary, he said, to reduce the country to a dead level of unresisting misery; before an act of oblivion could be securely laid down as the foundation of a new and permanent order of society.  He had already given his advice to his Majesty, that every town in the country should be burned to the ground, except those which could be permanently occupied by the royal troops.  The King, however, in his access of clemency at the appointment of a new administration, instructed the Grand Commander not to resort to this measure unless it should become strictly necessary.—­Such were the opposite opinions of the old and new governors with regard to the pardon.  The learned Viglius sided with Alva, although manifestly against his will.  “It is both the Duke’s opinion and my own,” wrote the Commander, “that Viglius does not dare to express his real opinion, and that he is secretly desirous of an arrangement with the rebels.”  With a good deal of inconsistency, the Governor was offended, not only with those who opposed his plans, but with those who favored them.  He was angry with Viglius, who, at least nominally, disapproved of the pardon, and with Noircarmes, Aerschot, and others, who manifested a wish for a pacification.  Of the chief characteristic ascribed to the people by Julius Caesar, namely, that they forgot neither favors nor injuries, the second half only, in the Grand Commander’s opinion, had been retained.  Not only did they never forget injuries, but their memory, said he, was so good, that they recollected many which they had never received.

On the whole, however, in the embarrassed condition of affairs, and while waiting for further supplies, the Commander was secretly disposed to try the effect of a pardon.  The object was to deceive the people and to gain time; for there was no intention of conceding liberty of conscience, of withdrawing foreign troops, or of assembling the states-general.  It was, however, not possible to apply these hypocritical measures