From the defensive against the Philistines David proceeded to aggressive war, in which he subjugated the three kinsfolk of Israel,—­Moab, Ammon, and Edom.  He appears to have come into conflict first with the Moabites, whom he vanquished and treated with savage atrocity.  Not long afterwards the king of Ammon died, and David sent an embassy of condolence to Hanun his successor.  Hanun suspected in this a sinister design,—­a suspicion we can readily understand if David had already, as is probable, subjugated Moab,—­and with the utmost contumely sent back the messengers to their master forthwith, at the same time making preparations for war by entering into alliance with various Syrian kings, and particularly with the powerful king of Soba 1

************************************** 1.  Soba appears to have been situated somewhat to the north of Damascus, and to have bordered on the west with Hamath.  The Aramaeans were beginning even at that period to press westwards; the Hittites, Phoenicians, and Israelites had common interests against them.  To the kingdom of Soba succeeded afterwards that of Damascus. *********************************

David took the initiative, and sent his army under command of Joab against Rabbath-Ammon.  The Syrians advanced to the relief of the besieged city; but Joab divided his forces, and, leaving his brother Abishai to hold the Ammonites in the town in check, proceeded himself against the Syrians and repulsed them.  On their afterwards threatening to renew the attack in increased force, David went against them in strength and defeated them at Helam “on the river.”  It seems that as a result of this the kingdom of Soba was broken up and made tributary to Damascus.  Rabbath-Ammon could not now hold out any longer, and the Ammonites shared the fate of their Moabite brethren.  Finally, Edom was about the same time coerced and depopulated; and thus was fulfilled the vision of Balaam,—­the youngest of the four Hebrew nationalities trod the three elder under his feet.

So far as external foes were concerned, David henceforward had peace; but new dangers arose at home within his own family.  At once by ill-judged leniency and equally ill-timed severity he had completely alienated his son Absalom, who, after Amnon’s death, was heir-apparent to the throne.  Absalom organised a revolt against his father, and to foster it availed himself of a misunderstanding which had arisen between David and the men of Judah, probably because they thought they were not treated with sufficient favour.  The revolt had its focus in Hebron; Ahithophel, a man of Judah, was its soul; Amasa, also of Judah, its arm; but the rest of Israel was also drawn into the rebellion, and only the territory to the east of Jordan remained faithful.  Thither David betook himself with precipitancy, for the outbreak had taken him completely by surprise.  At Mahanaim, which had once before been the centre from which the kingdom