As animals are but little susceptible either of the pleasures or pains of the imagination, they can judge of objects only by the sensible good or evil, which they produce, and from that must regulate their affections towards them.  Accordingly we find, that by benefits or injuries we produce their love or hatred; and that by feeding and cherishing any animal, we quickly acquire his affections; as by beating and abusing him we never fail to draw on us his enmity and ill-will.

Love in beasts is not caused so much by relation, as in our species; and that because their thoughts are not so active as to trace relations, except in very obvious instances.  Yet it is easy to remark, that on some occasions it has a considerable influence upon them.  Thus acquaintance, which has the same effect as relation, always produces love in animals either to men or to each other.  For the same reason any likeness among them is the source of affection.  An ox confined to a park with horses, will naturally join their company, if I may so speak, but always leaves it to enjoy that of his own species, where he has the choice of both.

The affection of parents to their young proceeds from a peculiar instinct in animals, as well as in our species.

It is evident, that sympathy, or the communication of passions, takes place among animals, no less than among men.  Fear, anger, courage, and other affections are frequently communicated from one animal to another, without their knowledge of that cause, which produced the original passion.  Grief likewise is received by sympathy; and produces almost all the same consequences, and excites the same emotions as in our species.  The howlings and lamentations of a dog produce a sensible concern in his fellows.  And it is remarkable, that though almost all animals use in play the same member, and nearly the same action as in fighting; a lion, a tyger, a cat their paws; an ox his horns; a dog his teeth; a horse his heels:  Yet they most carefully avoid harming their companion, even though they have nothing to fear from his resentment; which is an evident proof of the sense brutes have of each other’s pain and pleasure.

Every one has observed how much more dogs are animated when they hunt in a pack, than when they pursue their game apart; and it is evident this can proceed from nothing but from sympathy.  It is also well known to hunters, that this effect follows in a greater degree, and even in too .great a degree, where two packs, that are strangers to each other, are joined together.  We might, perhaps, be at a loss to explain this phaenomenon, if we had not experience of a similar in ourselves.

Envy and malice are passions very remarkable in animals.  They are perhaps more common than pity; as requiring less effort of thought and imagination.

PART III OF THE WILL AND DIRECT PASSIONS

SECT.  I OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY