17.  Ferrari, Histoire des revolutions d’Italie, i. 257; Kallsen, Die deutschen Stadte im Mittelalter, Bd.  I. (Halle, 1891).

18.  See the excellent remarks of Mr. G.L.  Gomme as regards the folkmote of London (The Literature of Local Institutions, London, 1886, p. 76).  It must, however, be remarked that in royal cities the folkmote never attained the independence which it assumed elsewhere.  It is even certain that Moscow and Paris were chosen by the kings and the Church as the cradles of the future royal authority in the State, because they did not possess the tradition of folkmotes accustomed to act as sovereign in all matters.

19.  A. Luchaire, Les Communes francaises; also Kluckohn, Geschichte des Gottesfrieden, 1857.  L. Semichon (La paix et la treve de Dieu, 2 vols., Paris, 1869) has tried to represent the communal movement as issued from that institution.  In reality, the treuga Dei, like the league started under Louis le Gros for the defence against both the robberies of the nobles and the Norman invasions, was a thoroughly popular movement.  The only historian who mentions this last league—­that is, Vitalis—­ describes it as a “popular community” ("Considerations sur l’histoire de France,” in vol. iv. of Aug.  Thierry’s OEuvres, Paris, 1868, p. 191 and note).

20.  Ferrari, i. 152, 263, etc.

21.  Perrens, Histoire de Florence, i. 188; Ferrari, l.c., i. 283.

22.  Aug.  Thierry, Essai sur l’histoire du Tiers Etat, Paris, 1875, p. 414, note.

23.  F. Rocquain, “La Renaissance au XIIe siecle,” in Etudes sur l’histoire de France, Paris, 1875, pp. 55-117.

24.  N. Kostomaroff, “The Rationalists of the Twelfth Century,” in his Monographies and Researches (Russian).

25.  Very interesting facts relative to the universality of guilds will be found in “Two Thousand Years of Guild Life,” by Rev. J. M. Lambert, Hull, 1891.  On the Georgian amkari, see S. Eghiazarov, Gorodskiye Tsekhi ("Organization of Transcaucasian Amkari"), in Memoirs of the Caucasian Geographical Society, xiv. 2, 1891.

26.  J.D.  Wunderer’s “Reisebericht” in Fichard’s Frankfurter Archiv, ii. 245; quoted by Janssen, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, i. 355.

27.  Dr. Leonard Ennen, Der Dom zu Koln, Historische Einleitung, Koln, 1871, pp. 46, 50.

28.  See previous chapter.

29.  Kofod Ancher, Om gamle Danske Gilder og deres Undergang, Copenhagen, 1785.  Statutes of a Knu guild.

30.  Upon the position of women in guilds, see Miss Toulmin Smith’s introductory remarks to the English Guilds of her father.  One of the Cambridge statutes (p. 281) of the year 1503 is quite positive in the following sentence:  “Thys statute is made by the comyne assent of all the bretherne and sisterne of alhallowe yelde.”

31.  In medieval times, only secret aggression was treated as a murder.  Blood-revenge in broad daylight was justice; and slaying in a quarrel was not murder, once the aggressor showed his willingness to repent and to repair the wrong he had done.  Deep traces of this distinction still exist in modern criminal law, especially in Russia.