of this well, and divides it into two parts, one for the propeller and one for the rudder.  In this way it is possible to lift both the rudder and the screw out of the water.  The rudder is so hung that the rudder-stock, which is cylindrical, turns on its own axis, to prevent the rudder being jammed if the well should be filled with ice.  Aft of the rudder-well the space between the stern-timbers is filled with solid wood, and the whole is securely bolted together with bolts running athwart-ship.  The frame-timbers join the stern-timbers in this part, and are fastened to them by means of knees.  The stem and stern-post are connected to the keelson and to the keel by stout knees of timber, and both the ship’s sides are bound together with solid breasthooks and crutches of wood or iron.

Although the Fram was not specially built for ramming, it was probable that now and then she would be obliged to force her way through the ice.  Her bow and stern were therefore shod in the usual way.  On the forward side of the stem a segment-shaped iron was bolted from the bobstay-bolt to some way under the keel.  Outside this iron plates (3 x 3/4 inches) were fastened over the stem, and for 6 feet on each side of it.  These iron plates were placed close together, and thus formed a continuous armour-plating to a couple of feet from the keel.  The sharp edge of the stern was protected in the same way, and the lower sides of the well were lined with thick iron plates.  The rudder-post, which owing to its exposed position may be said to form the Achilles’ heel of the ship, was strengthened with three heavy pieces of iron, one in the opening for the screw and one on each side of the two posts and the keel, and bolted together with bolts running athwart-ship.

Extraordinary precautions were taken for strengthening the ship’s sides, which were particularly exposed to destruction by ice-pressure, and which, on account of their form, compose the weakest part of the hull.  These precautions will best be seen in the sections (Figs. 3 and 4).  Under each beam in both decks were placed diagonal stays of fir (6 x 10 inches), almost at right angles to the ship’s sides, and securely fastened to the sides and to the beams by wooden knees.  There are 68 of these stays distributed over the ship.  In addition, there are under the beams three rows of vertical stanchions between decks, and one row in the lower hold from the keelson.  These are connected to the keelson, to the beams, and to each other by iron bands.  The whole of the ship’s interior is thus filled with a network of braces and stays, arranged in such a way as to transfer and distribute the pressure from without, and give rigidity to the whole construction.  In the engine and boiler room it was necessary to modify the arrangement of stays, so as to give room for the engines and boiler.  All the iron, with the exception of the heaviest forgings, is galvanized.