The state of nature of Rousseau was a state in which inequality did not exist, and with a fervid rhetoric he tried to persuade his readers that it was the happier state.  He recognized inequality, it is true, as a word of two different meanings:  first, physical inequality, difference of age, strength, health, and of intelligence and character; second, moral and political inequality, difference of privileges which some enjoy to the detriment of others-such as riches, honor, power.  The first difference is established by nature, the second by man.  So long, however, as the state of nature endures, no disadvantages flow from the natural inequalities.

In Rousseau’s account of the means by which equality was lost, the incoming of the ideas of property is prominent.  From property arose civil society.  With property came in inequality.  His exposition of inequality is confused, and it is not possible always to tell whether he means inequality of possessions or of political rights.  His contemporary, Morelly, who published the Basileade in 1753, was troubled by no such ambiguity.  He accepts the doctrine that men are formed by laws, but holds that they are by nature good, and that laws, by establishing a division of the products of nature, broke up the sociability of men, and that all political and moral evils are the result of private property.  Political inequality is an accident of inequality of possessions, and the renovation of the latter lies in the abolition of the former.

The opening sentence of the Contrat-Social is, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is a slave,” a statement which it is difficult to reconcile with the fact that every human being is born helpless, dependent, and into conditions of subjection, conditions that we have no reason to suppose were ever absent from the race.  But Rousseau never said, “All men are born equal.”  He recognized, as we have seen, natural inequality.  What he held was that the artificial differences springing from the social union were disproportionate to the capacities springing from the original constitution; and that society, as now organized, tends to make the gulf wider between those who have privileges and those who have none.

The well-known theory upon which Rousseau’s superstructure rests is that society is the result of a compact, a partnership between men.  They have not made an agreement to submit their individual sovereignty to some superior power, but they have made a covenant of brotherhood.  It is a contract of association.  Men were, and ought to be, equal cooperators, not only in politics, but in industries and all the affairs of life.  All the citizens are participants in the sovereign authority.  Their sovereignty is inalienable; power may be transmitted, but not will; if the people promise to obey, it dissolves itself by the very act—­if there is a master, there is no longer a people.  Sovereignty is also indivisible; it cannot be split up into legislative, judiciary, and executive power.