and the prisoner was instantly tied up without a trial, without even a written order for the execution; and this though the courts of law were sitting at the distance of only a few hundred yards.  The English House of Commons, some years later, after a long discussion, resolved, without a division, that the order for the execution of Gafney was arbitrary and illegal, but that Coningsby’s fault was so much extenuated by the circumstances in which he was placed that it was not a proper subject for impeachment.73

It was not only by the implacable hostility of the Irish that the Saxon of the pale was at this time harassed.  His allies caused him almost as much annoyance as his helots.  The help of troops from abroad was indeed necessary to him; but it was dearly bought.  Even William, in whom the whole civil and military authority was concentrated, had found it difficult to maintain discipline in an army collected from many lands, and composed in great part of mercenaries accustomed to live at free quarters.  The powers which had been united in him were now divided and subdivided.  The two Lords justices considered the civil administration as their province, and left the army to the management of Ginkell, who was General in Chief.  Ginkell kept excellent order among the auxiliaries from Holland, who were under his more immediate command.  But his authority over the English and the Danes was less entire; and unfortunately their pay was, during part of the winter, in arrear.  They indemnified themselves by excesses and exactions for the want of that which was their due; and it was hardly possible to punish men with severity for not choosing to starve with arms in their hands.  At length in the spring large supplies of money and stores arrived; arrears were paid up; rations were plentiful; and a more rigid discipline was enforced.  But too many traces of the bad habits which the soldiers had contracted were discernible till the close of the war.74

In that part of Ireland, meanwhile, which still acknowledged James as King, there could hardly be said to be any law, any property, or any government.  The Roman Catholics of Ulster and Leinster had fled westward by tens of thousands, driving before them a large part of the cattle which had escaped the havoc of two terrible years.  The influx of food into the Celtic region, however, was far from keeping pace with the influx of consumers.  The necessaries of life were scarce.  Conveniences to which every plain farmer and burgess in England was accustomed could hardly be procured by nobles and generals.  No coin was to be seen except lumps of base metal which were called crowns and shillings.  Nominal prices were enormously high.  A quart of ale cost two and sixpence, a quart of brandy three pounds.  The only towns of any note on the western coast were Limerick and Galway; and the oppression which the shopkeepers of those towns underwent was such that many of them stole away with the remains of their