Infinitives may also be used as general terms, as ‘To err is human’; but for logical purposes they may have to be translated into equivalent substantive forms, as Foolish actions are characteristic of mankind.  Abstract terms, too, are (as I observed) equivalent to general terms; ‘folly’ is abstract for ‘foolish actions.’ ’Honesty is the best policy’ means people who are honest may hope to find their account in being so; that is, in the effects of their honest actions, provided they are wise in other ways, and no misfortunes attend them.  The abstract form is often much the more succinct and forcible, but for logical treatment it needs to be interpreted in the general form.

By antonomasia proper names may become general terms, as if we say ’A Johnson’ would not have written such a book—­i.e., any man of his genius for elaborate eloquence.

A Collective Term denotes a multitude of similar things considered as forming one whole, as ‘regiment,’ ‘flock,’ ‘nation’:  not distributively, that is, not the similar things severally; to denote them we must say ‘soldiers of the regiment,’ ‘sheep of the flock,’ and so on.  If in a multitude of things there is no resemblance, except the fact of being considered as parts of one whole, as ‘the world,’ or ’the town of Nottingham’ (meaning its streets and houses, open spaces, people, and civic organisation), the term denoting them as a whole is Singular; but ‘the world’ or ‘town of Nottingham,’ meaning the inhabitants only, is Collective.

In their strictly collective use, all such expressions are equivalent to singular terms; but many of them may also be used as general terms, as when we speak of ‘so many regiments of the line,’ or discuss the ‘plurality of worlds’; and in this general use they denote any of a multitude of things of the same kind—­regiments, or habitable worlds.

Names of substances, such as ‘gold,’ ‘air,’ ‘water,’ may be employed as singular, collective, or general terms; though, perhaps, as singular terms only figuratively, as when we say Gold is king.  If we say with Thales, ‘Water is the source of all things,’ ‘water’ seems to be used collectively.  But substantive names are frequently used as general terms.  For example, Gold is heavy means ’in comparison with other things,’ such as water.  And, plainly, it does not mean that the aggregate of gold is heavier than the aggregate of water, but only that its specific gravity is greater; that is, bulk for bulk, any piece of gold is heavier than water.

Finally, any class-name may be used collectively if we wish to assert something of the things denoted by it, not distributively but altogether, as that Sheep are more numerous than wolves.

CHAPTER IV

THE CONNOTATION OF TERMS