[Illustration:  EQUESTRIAN STATUE MICHAEL THE BRAVE AT BUCAREST.

(FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ DUSCHEK.)]

Besides the poll-tax, there was the ‘Standard gift’ (Poklon), which was levied at the installation of the Voivode; the Easter present; the extra tax (ajutorita), which was raised when the other taxes ran short.  Moreover, there were taxes in kind on malt, salt, fish, cattle, and horses, payable to the prince.  The landlord (boyard) was entitled to land and pasturage tax, the tenth of the earth’s productions, feudal service, bee, pig, and sheep taxes, and in addition to these a rate was levied upon bees, pigs, tobacco, wine, and sheep, for the benefit of the prince.[138] Whilst these imposts and the extraordinary levies and ravages of war often reduced the whole of the peasantry to the most abject poverty, bordering on starvation, the boyards lived in comparative ease, and led a life of immorality and self-indulgence.  Concubinage widely prevailed, and many boyards had, besides their legitimate wife, ten or a dozen mistresses.  They appear to have been gradually growing in influence, and the greater boyards filled all the chief offices of State as well as the leading military posts in the districts.  Personal distinctions existed also, the leading boyards being allowed to wear long beards, a practice which was forbidden to the lesser boyards.

Besides the boyards and their serfs there was hardly any native population worth speaking of, and no middle class whatever; all trade being in the hands of Greeks, Jews, and Armenians.  There was, however, a priesthood, who were as ignorant as the peasantry; indeed many of them followed both occupations, the only exceptions being the metropolitan and the higher clerics, who possessed considerable influence there as elsewhere in the middle ages.  The power of the prince had no definite limits, and, with the exception of the counteracting influence of the boyards, it was practically absolute.  There was a council of twelve boyards, whose signatures along with that of the prince were visually appended to all important State documents.

In the time of Stephen (some writers say, at an earlier period), the various offices of State were established, which were maintained down to a recent date, both in Wallachia and Moldavia; and as it is impossible for the reader to interest himself in any question bearing upon the past history of the country without finding some mention made of one or other of them, it may be useful here to enumerate a few of their titles.

1.  The Ban of Craiova was Viceroy of Little Wallachia, and his authority reached back, in all probability, to the foundation of the principality. 2.  The Vel-Vornic, or Minister of the Interior, was Governor of the Carpathians and of the neighbouring districts. 3.  The Great Vornic was governor of the lowlands. 4.  The Logothet, or Chancellor, was Minister of Justice. 5.  The Great Spathar was Minister