perverts the understanding, deceives the heart, and places the conscience in peril.  In a philosophical point of view, it is a contradiction of thought, which seeks the Infinite Being, and, being unable to discover Him, gives the character of infinity to realities bounded by experience.  In a religious point of view, it is an aberration of the heart, which preserves the sentiment of adoration, but perverts it by dispersing it over the universe.  “Pantheism,” says M. Jules Simon, “is only the learned form of atheism; the universe deified is a universe without God."[41] From the moment that the reason endeavors to see distinctly, pantheism vanishes like a deceitful glare.  Atheism disengages itself from the cloak which was concealing its true nature, and the mind remains in presence of nature only, or of humanity only.  We will proceed to take a rapid glance at some few of the countries of Europe, in order to discover and point out in them the traces of this melancholy doctrine.  Let us begin with France.

In the year 1844, just twenty years ago, some French writers, representing the philosophy, in some measure official, of the time, united to publish a Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques.  M. Franck, the director of this useful and laborious enterprise, said in the preface to the work:  “Atheism has well nigh completely disappeared from philosophy; the progress of a sound psychology will render its return for ever impossible.”  In speaking thus, he expressed the thoughts and hopes of the school of which he remains one of the most estimable representatives.  A generous impulse was animating a group of intelligent and learned young men.  Their hope was to translate Christianity into a purely rational doctrine, to purify religious notions without destroying them, and, while endowing humanity with a vigorous scientific culture, to leave to it its lofty hopes.  The object in view was to establish a philosophy founded upon a serious faith in God; and to this philosophy was promised the progressive and pacific conquest of the human race.[42] Twenty years have passed, and things bear quite another aspect.  To language expressive of security have succeeded the accents of anxiety and words of alarm.  The cause which was proclaimed victorious is defended at this day like a besieged city.  You will remark however,—­that I may not leave you beyond measure discouraged by the facts of which I have to tell you,—­you will remark, I say, that it is the efforts attempted in the cause of good which have helped to set me on the track of evil; it has often been the defence which has fixed my attention upon the attack.

The materialism of the last century seems to have maintained a strong hold upon one part of the Paris school of medicine.  We do find in France a good many physicians who, like Boerhave, render homage to religion, and a good many physiologists who, like the great Haller, are ready to defend beliefs of the spiritual order;[43] but, among men specially devoted to the study of matter, many succumb to the temptation of refusing to recognize anything as real which does not come under the experience of the senses.  This however is not one of the points which offer themselves most strikingly for our examination.  The atheistic manifestations of the socialist schools have more novelty, and perhaps more importance.