Revolution in rights; equality.

Revolution in ideas; reasoning substituted for authority.

Revolution in facts; the reign of the people.

A Gospel of social rights.

A Gospel of duties, a charter of humanity.

France declared itself the apostle of this creed.  In this war of ideas
France had allies every where, and even on thrones themselves.

VIII.

There are epochs in the history of the human race, when the decayed branches fall from the tree of humanity; and when institutions grown old and exhausted, sink and leave space for fresh institutions full of sap, which renew the youth and recast the ideas of a people.  Antiquity is replete with this transformation, of which we only catch a glimpse in the relics of history.  Each decadence of effete ideas carries with it an old world, and gives its name to a new order of civilisation.  The East.  China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, have seen these ruins and these renewals.  The West experienced them when the Druidical theocracy gave way to the gods and government of the Romans.  Byzantium, Rome, and the Empire effected them rapidly, and as it were instinctively by themselves when, wearied with, and blushing at, polytheism, they rose at the voice of Constantine against their gods, and swept away, like an angry tempest, those temples, those ideas and forms of worship, to which the people still clung, but which the superior portion of human thought had already abandoned.  The Civilisation of Constantine and Charlemagne grew old in its turn, and the beliefs which for eighteen centuries had supported altars and thrones, menaced the religious world, as well as the political world, with a catastrophe which rarely leaves power standing when faith is staggered.  Monarchical Europe was the handiwork of catholicism; politics were fashioned after the image of the Church; authority was founded on a mystery.  Rights came to it from on high, and power, like faith, was reputed divine.  The obedience of the people was consecrated to it, and from that very reason inquiry was a blasphemy, and servitude a virtue.  The spirit of philosophy, which had silently revolted against this for three centuries, as a doctrine which the scandals, tyrannies, and crimes of the two powers belied daily, refused any longer to recognise a divine title in those authorities which deny reason and subjugate a people.  So long as catholicism had been the sole legal doctrine in Europe, these murmuring revolts of mind had not overset empires.  They had been punished by the hands of rulers.  Dungeons, punishments, inquisitions, fire, and faggot, had intimidated reason, and preserved erect the two-fold dogma on which the two governments reposed.