in Spain, Southern Italy and Sicily; and the Mongols ruled for almost two centuries in Russia.  All these were factors in the transmission of Oriental influence.[6] And, as far as Germany is concerned, we must remember that in the tenth century, owing to the marriage of the emperor Otto ii to the Greek princess Theophano, the relations between the German and Byzantine Empires were especially close.  Furthermore the Hohenstaufen emperor, Frederick ii, it will be remembered, was a friend and patron of the Saracens in Italy and Sicily, who in turn supported him loyally in his struggle against the papacy.  Above all, the crusades, which brought the civilization of the West face to face with that of the East, were a powerful factor in bringing Oriental influence into Europe.  The effect they had on the European mind is shown by the great number of French and German poems which lay their scene of action in Eastern lands, or, as will be shown presently, introduce persons and things from India and Persia.[7]

Of course it is as a rule impossible to tell precisely how and when the Oriental influence came into Europe, but that it did come is absolutely certain.  The transformation of the Buddha-legend into the Christian legend of Barlaam and Josaphat, the migration of fables and stories, and the introduction of the game of chess furnish the clearest proofs of this.

* * * * *

But direct information about the East was also available.  A number of merchants and missionaries penetrated even as far as China, and have left accounts of their travels.  Such an account of India and Ceylon was given as early as the sixth century by Cosmas, surnamed Indicopleustes.  The names of Benjamin of Tudela (about 1160 A.D.) and of Marco Polo (1271-1295) are familiar to every student of historical geography.  The Mongol rulers during the period of their dominion over China were in active communication with the popes and allowed Western missionaries free access to their realm.  A number of these missionaries also came to India or Persia, for instance Giovanni de Montecorvino (1289-1293),[8] Odorico da Pordenone (1316-1318),[9] Friar Jordanus (1321-1323, and 1330)[10] and Giovanni de Marignolli (1347).[11] In the fifteenth century Henry iii of Castile sent Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo as ambassador to Timur, and towards the end of that century several Venetian Ambassadors, Caterino Zeno (1472), Josaphat Barbaro (1473) and Ambrosio Contarini (1473), were at the Persian Court in order to bring about united action on the part of Venice and Persia against the Turks.[12] These embassies attracted considerable attention in Europe, as is shown by numerous pamphlets concerning them, published in several European countries.[13] In this same century Nicolo de Conti travelled in India and the account of his wanderings has been recorded by Poggio.[14]