With the exception of this and one or two other circumstances of the kind, the majority of the South American States have suffered very little frontier alteration since their first foundation.  Such, however, has not been the case with the Northern States of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.  Here, for almost half a century after the liberation of the provinces, a process of alternate fusion and disintegration continued.  Thus, in 1832, the three States of Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada were formed.  In 1863 the latter country became the United States of Colombia; but it was not until 1886 that the Republic of Colombia as it now stands was instituted.

Colombia has suffered from as many revolutions as the majority of its neighbours.  General Santander, one of the many of Bolivar’s lieutenants who became Presidents, was the first Chief-of-State of Venezuela.  A strong ruler, he governed in comparative peace until 1831.  The next important President to follow him was General Mosquera, who likewise held the reins of power with a firm hand, and, with two or three breaks, ruled from 1845 to 1867.  Dr. Rafael Nunez succeeded him, and proved himself an intellectual President, who became more and more autocratic as his years of office increased.  He continued, indeed, whether in the actual tenure of office or not, to exercise an influence of personal absolutism over the Republic until 1894, when he died.

His death was the signal for the breaking out of internal disturbances which his long rule had steadily kept in check.  It was in 1903 that, owing to the negotiations in progress for the enterprise of the Panama Canal, the portion of Colombia which had been chosen for the purpose of the cutting seceded from the Republic, and established itself as a separate State—­that of Panama.  The new Republic immediately concluded arrangements with the United States of America, and granted concessions for the immense enterprise which is now in the act of being completed.

The history of Ecuador since the establishment of the Republic requires very little comment.  In this State the proportion of the white races to the coloured is unusually small; nevertheless, this has not had the effect of checking the revolutions, of which the Republic has been extremely prolific.

General Juan Jose Flores stands as the chief hero of Ecuador.  He it was who actually founded the Republic in 1830.  Flores provides one more instance of the power of the men who stood at the helm of these new States when they were first of all launched on the stormy waters of their careers.  When his fifteen years of power ended came the inevitable flock of revolutions, and Ecuador went the way of her neighbours.

A military Dictatorship endured until 1860, when Garcia-Moreno, being declared President, supported the clerical influence and established a species of Dictatorship.  His influence continued for many years after he had ostensibly resigned his office, and the sincerity of his acts was unquestionable.  Considering that the situation of the country rendered it necessary, he resumed power and arrested various attempts at revolutions.  In 1875, however, he was assassinated.  A statesman of disinterested merit and high ideals, he was generally mourned by the populace.