of the Rhine entered Italy, met the praetorians at Bedriac near Cremona, and overthrew them in so furious a battle that it lasted all night; then they compelled the Senate to elect Vitellius, their general, as emperor.  During this time the army of Syria had elected its chief Vespasian, who in turn defeated Vitellius and was named in his place; thus in two years three emperors had been created and three overthrown by the soldiers.  The new emperor often undid what his predecessor had done; imperial despotism had not even the advantage of being stable.

=The Twelve Caesars.=—­This regime of oppression interrupted by violence endured for more than a century (31 B.C. to 96 A.D.).

The twelve emperors who came to the throne during this time are called the Twelve Caesars, although only the first six were of the family of Augustus.  It is difficult to judge them equitably.  Almost all of them persecuted the noble families of Rome of whom they were afraid, and it is the writers of these families that have made their reputation.  But it is quite possible that in the provinces their government was mild and just, superior to that of the senators of the republic.

THE CENTURY OF THE ANTONINES

=The Antonines.=—­The five emperors succeeding the twelve Caesars, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus Aurelius (96-180), have left a reputation for justice and wisdom.  They were called the Antonines, though this name properly belongs only to the last two.  They were not descended from the old families of Rome; Trajan and Hadrian were Spaniards, Antoninus was born at Nimes in Gaul.  They were not princes of imperial family, destined from their birth to rule.  Four emperors came to the throne without sons and so the empire could not be transmitted by inheritance.  On each occasion the prince chose among his generals and his governors the man most capable of succeeding him; he adopted him as his son and sought his confirmation by the Senate.  Thus there came to the empire only experienced men, who without confusion assumed the throne of their adoptive fathers.

=Government of the Antonines.=—­This century of the Antonines was the calmest that the ancient world had ever known.  Wars were relegated to the frontier of the empire.  In the interior there were still military seditions, tyranny, and arbitrary condemnations.  The Antonines held the army in check, organized a council of state of jurisconsults, established tribunals, and replaced the freedmen who had so long irritated the Romans under the twelve Caesars by regular functionaries taken from among the men of the second class—­that is, the knights.  The emperor was no longer a tyrant served by the soldiers; he was truly the first magistrate of the republic, using his authority only for the good of the citizens.  The last two Antonines especially, Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius, honored the empire by their integrity.  Both lived simply, like ordinary men, although they were very rich, without anything that resembled a court or a palace, never giving the impression that they were masters.  Marcus Aurelius consulted the Senate on all state business and regularly attended its sessions.