=Thebes.=—­At the eleventh dynasty Thebes succeeds Memphis as capital.  The ruins of Thebes are still standing.  They are marvellous, extending as they do on both banks of the Nile, with a circuit of about seven miles.  On the left bank there is a series of palaces and temples which lead to vast cemeteries.  On the right bank two villages, Luxor and Karnak, distant a half-hour one from the other, are built in the midst of the ruins.  They are united by a double row of sphinxes, which must have once included more than 1,000 of these monuments.  Among these temples in ruins the greatest was the temple of Ammon at Karnak.  It was surrounded by a wall of over one and one-third miles in length; the famous Hall of Columns, the greatest in the world, had a length of 334 feet, a width of 174 feet,[12] and was supported by 134 columns; twelve of these are over 65 feet high.  Thebes was for 1,500 years the capital and sacred city, the residence of kings and the dwelling-place of the priests.

=The Pharaoh.=—­The king of Egypt, called Pharaoh, was esteemed as the son of the Sun-god and his incarnation on earth; divinity was ascribed to him also.  We may see in a picture King Rameses ii standing in adoration before the divine Rameses who is sitting between two gods.  The king as man adores himself as god.  Being god, the Pharaoh has absolute power over men; as master, he gives his orders to his great nobles at court, to his warriors, to all his subjects.  But the priests, though adoring him, surround and watch him; their head, the high priest of the god Ammon, at last becomes more powerful than the king; he often governs under the name of the king and in his stead.

=The Subjects of Pharaoh.=—­The king, the priests, the warriors, the nobles, are proprietors of all Egypt; all the other people are simply their peasants who cultivate the land for them.  Scribes in the service of the king watch them and collect the farm-dues, often with blows of the staff.  One of these functionaries writes as follows to a friend, “Have you ever pictured to yourself the existence of the peasant who tills the soil.  The tax-collector is on the platform busily seizing the tithe of the harvest.  He has his men with him armed with staves, his negroes provided with strips of palm.  All cry, ’Come, give us grain,’ If the peasant hasn’t it, they throw him full length on the earth, bind him, draw him to the canal, and hurl him in head foremost.”

=Despotism.=—­The Egyptian people has always been, and still is, gay, careless, gentle, docile as an infant, always ready to submit to tyranny.  In this country the cudgel was the instrument of education and of government.  “The young man,” said the scribes, “has a back to be beaten; he hears when he is struck.”  “One day,” says a French traveller, “finding myself before the ruins of Thebes, I exclaimed, ‘But how did they do all this?’ My guide burst out laughing, touched me on the arm and, showing me a palm, said to me, ’Here is what they used to accomplish all this.  You know, sir, with 100,000 branches of palms split on the backs of those who always have their shoulders bare, you can build many a palace and some temples to boot.’”