the Chinese had made khan of the Oeloet, rose against the Chinese.  The wars that followed, extending far into Turkestan and also involving its Turkish population together with the Dzungars, ended with the Chinese conquest of the whole of Mongolia and of parts of eastern Turkestan.  As Tsewang Rabdan had tried to extend his power as far as Tibet, a campaign was undertaken also into Tibet, Lhasa was occupied, a new Dalai Lama was installed there as supreme ruler, and Tibet was made into a protectorate.  Since then Tibet has remained to this day under some form of Chinese colonial rule.

This penetration of the Chinese into Turkestan took place just at the time when the Russians were enormously expanding their empire in Asia, and this formed the third problem for the Manchus.  In 1650 the Russians had established a fort by the river Amur.  The Manchus regarded the Amur (which they called the “River of the Black Dragon”) as part of their own territory, and in 1685 they destroyed the Russian settlement.  After this there were negotiations, which culminated in 1689 in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.  This treaty was the first concluded by the Chinese state with a European power.  Jesuit missionaries played a part in the negotiations as interpreters.  Owing to the difficulties of translation the text of the treaty, in Chinese, Russian, and Manchurian, contained some obscurities, particulary in regard to the frontier line.  Accordingly, in 1727 the Russians asked for a revision of the old treaty.  The Chinese emperor, whose rule name was Yung-cheng, arranged for the negotiations to be carried on at the frontier, in the town of Kyakhta, in Mongolia, where after long discussions a new treaty was concluded.  Under this treaty the Russians received permission to set up a legation and a commercial agency in Peking, and also to maintain a church.  This was the beginning of the foreign Capitulations.  From the Chinese point of view there was nothing special in a facility of this sort.  For some fifteen centuries all the “barbarians” who had to bring tribute had been given houses in the capital, where their envoys could wait until the emperor would receive them—­usually on New Year’s Day.  The custom had sprung up at the reception of the Huns.  Moreover, permission had always been given for envoys to be accompanied by a few merchants, who during the envoy’s stay did a certain amount of business.  Furthermore the time had been when the Uighurs were permitted to set up a temple of their own.  At the time of the permission given to the Russians to set up a “legation”, a similar office was set up (in 1729) for “Uighur” peoples (meaning Mohammedans), again under the control of an office, called the Office for Regulation of Barbarians.  The Mohammedan office was placed under two Mohammedan leaders who lived in Peking.  The Europeans, however, had quite different ideas about a “legation”, and about the significance of permission to trade.  They regarded this as the opening of diplomatic relations between states on terms of equality, and the carrying on of trade as a special privilege, a sort of Capitulation.  This reciprocal misunderstanding produced in the nineteenth century a number of serious political conflicts.  The Europeans charged the Chinese with breach of treaties, failure to meet their obligations, and other such things, while the Chinese considered that they had acted with perfect correctness.