as the operators were officials, they were not too business-minded and these enterprises did not develop well.  The businessmen certainly had enough capital, but they invested it in land instead of investing it in industries which could at any moment be taken away by the government, controlled by the officials or forced to sell at set prices, and which were always subject to exploitation by dishonest officials.  A businessman felt secure only when he had invested in land, when he had received an official title upon the payment of large sums of money, or when he succeeded to push at least one of his sons into the government bureaucracy.  No doubt, in spite of all this, Chinese business and industry kept on developing in the Manchu time, but they did not develop at such a speed as to transform the country from an agrarian into a modern industrial nation.

3 Expansion in Central Asia; the first State treaty

The rise of the Manchu dynasty actually began under the K’ang-hsi rule (1663-1722).  The emperor had three tasks.  The first was the removal of the last supporters of the Ming dynasty and of the generals, such as Wu San-kui, who had tried to make themselves independent.  This necessitated a long series of campaigns, most of them in the south-west or south of China; these scarcely affected the population of China proper.  In 1683 Formosa was occupied and the last of the insurgent army commanders was defeated.  It was shown above that the situation of all these leaders became hopeless as soon as the Manchus had occupied the rich Yangtze region and the intelligentsia and the gentry of that region had gone over to them.

A quite different type of insurgent commander was the Mongol prince Galdan.  He, too, planned to make himself independent of Manchu overlordship.  At first the Mongols had readily supported the Manchus, when the latter were making raids into China and there was plenty of booty.  Now, however, the Manchus, under the influence of the Chinese gentry whom they brought, and could not but bring, to their court, were rapidly becoming Chinese in respect to culture.  Even in the time of K’ang-hsi the Manchus began to forget Manchurian; they brought tutors to court to teach the young Manchus Chinese.  Later even the emperors did not understand Manchurian!  As a result of this process, the Mongols became alienated from the Manchurians, and the situation began once more to be the same as at the time of the Ming rulers.  Thus Galdan tried to found an independent Mongol realm, free from Chinese influence.

The Manchus could not permit this, as such a realm would have threatened the flank of their homeland, Manchuria, and would have attracted those Manchus who objected to sinification.  Between 1690 and 1696 there were battles, in which the emperor actually took part in person.  Galdan was defeated.  In 1715, however, there were new disturbances, this time in western Mongolia.  Tsewang Rabdan, whom