a combination of the first two.  The modern lighthouse lenses are very elaborate in construction, being built up by means of many elements into several sections.  For example, the central section may consist of a spherical lens ground with annular rings.  In the next section refracting prisms may be used and in the outer section reflecting glass prisms are employed.  The various elements are carefully designed according to the laws of geometrical optics.

The flashing light has such advantages over the fixed that it is generally used for important beacons.  A variety of methods of obtaining intermittent light have been employed, but they are not of particular interest.  Sometimes the lens or reflector is revolved and in other types an opaque screen containing slits is revolved.  In the larger lighthouses the optical apparatus and its structure sometimes weigh several tons.  When it is necessary to revolve apparatus of this weight, the whole mechanism is floated upon mercury contained in a cast-iron vessel of suitable size, and by an ingenious arrangement only a small portion of mercury is required.

The characteristics of navigation lights are varied considerably in order to enable the mariner to distinguish them and thereby to learn exactly where he is.  The fixed light is liable to be confused with others, so it has now become a minor light.  Flashes of short duration followed by longer periods of darkness are extensively used.  The mariner by timing the intervals is able to recognize the light.  This method is extended to groups of short flashes followed by longer intervals of darkness.  In fact, short flashes have been employed to indicate a certain number so that a mariner could recognize the light by a number rather than by means of his watch.  However, a time element is generally used.  A combination of fixed light upon which is superposed a flash or a group of flashes of white or of colored light has been used, but it is in disrepute as being unreliable.  A type known as “occulating lights” consists of a fixed light which is momentarily eclipsed, but the duration of the eclipse is usually less than that of the light.  Obviously, groups of eclipses may be used.  Sometimes lights of different colors are alternated without any dark intervals.  The colored ones used are generally red and green, but these are short-range lights at best.  Colored sectors are sometimes used over portions of the field, in order to indicate dangers, and white light shows in the fairway.  These are usually fixed lights for marking the channel.

The distance at which a light may be seen at sea depends upon its luminous intensity, upon its color or spectral composition, upon its height and that of the observer’s eyes above the sea-level, and upon the atmospheric conditions.  Assuming a perfectly clear atmosphere, the visibility of a light-source apparently depends directly upon its candle-power.  The atmosphere ordinarily absorbs the red, orange, and yellow rays less than the green, blue, and violet rays.  This is demonstrated by the setting sun, which as it approaches closer to the horizon changes from yellow to orange and finally to red as the amount of atmosphere between it and the eye increases.  For this reason a red light would have a greater range than a blue light of the same luminous intensity.