=Society and the school.=—­At its best, society is but an enlarged copy of the vitalized school.  Or, to put it in another way, the vitalized school is society in miniature.  As the school is engaged in the work of making substitutions, so, in fact, is society.  Legislative bodies are striving to substitute wise laws for the laws that have fallen behind the needs of the times, that the interests of society may be fully conserved.  The church is substituting better methods of work in all its activities for the methods that have become antiquated or ineffective.  This it does in the hope that its influence may be broadened and deepened.  Ministers and officials are constantly pondering the question of substitutions.  The farmer is substituting better methods of tilling the soil for the methods that were in vogue in a former time before science had invaded the realms of agriculture, to the end that he may increase the yield of his fields, make larger contributions to commerce, increase his profits, and so be better able to gratify some of the higher desires of his nature.

=The automobile factory.=—­Each successive model in an automobile factory is a concrete illustration of the process of making substitutions, and each substituted part bears witness to a close scrutiny of past experiences as well as of the wants of prospective purchasers.  The self-starter was a want at first; but now it is a need, and, therefore, a necessity.  If the school would but make as careful study of the boy’s experiences and his wants as the manufacturer does in the case of automobiles, and then would attach the substitutions to these experiences and wants, the boy would very soon find himself in happy possession of a self-starter which would prove to be the very crown of school work.  The automobile manufacturer is both a psychologist and a politician.

=Results of substitutions.=—­As a result of substitutions we have better roads, better houses, better laws, cleaner streets, better fences, better machinery, more sanitary conditions, and a higher type of conduct.  We step to a higher level upon the experiences of the past and make substitutions as we move upward.  The progress of civilization is measured by the character of these substitutions and the rapidity with which they are made.  The people on the Isle of Marken make but few substitutions, and these only at long intervals, and so they are looked upon as curiosities among humans.  In all our missionary enterprises we are endeavoring to persuade the peoples among whom we are working to make substitutions.  Instead of their own, we would have them accept our books, our styles of clothing, our plans of government, our modes of living, our means of transportation, and, in short, our standards of life.  But, first of all, we must learn their standards of life; otherwise we cannot proceed intelligently or effectively in the line of substitutions.  We must know their language before we can teach them ours, and we must translate our books into their language before we can hope to substitute our books for theirs.  All the substitutions we hope to make presuppose a knowledge of their wants.  Hence the methods of the missionary bear a close analogy to the methods of the politician.