A city which has no regular courts of law ceases to be a city; and again, if a judge is silent and says no more in preliminary proceedings than the litigants, as is the case in arbitrations, he will never be able to decide justly; wherefore a multitude of judges will not easily judge well, nor a few if they are bad.  The point in dispute between the parties should be made clear; and time, and deliberation, and repeated examination, greatly tend to clear up doubts.  For this reason, he who goes to law with another, should go first of all to his neighbours and friends who know best the questions at issue.  And if he be unable to obtain from them a satisfactory decision, let him have recourse to another court; and if the two courts cannot settle the matter, let a third put an end to the suit.

Now the establishment of courts of justice may be regarded as a choice of magistrates, for every magistrate must also be a judge of some things; and the judge, though he be not a magistrate, yet in certain respects is a very important magistrate on the day on which he is determining a suit.  Regarding then the judges also as magistrates, let us say who are fit to be judges, and of what they are to be judges, and how many of them are to judge in each suit.  Let that be the supreme tribunal which the litigants appoint in common for themselves, choosing certain persons by agreement.  And let there be two other tribunals:  one for private causes, when a citizen accuses another of wronging him and wishes to get a decision; the other for public causes, in which some citizen is of opinion that the public has been wronged by an individual, and is willing to vindicate the common interests.  And we must not forget to mention how the judges are to be qualified, and who they are to be.  In the first place, let there be a tribunal open to all private persons who are trying causes one against another for the third time, and let this be composed as follows:—­All the officers of state, as well annual as those holding office for a longer period, when the new year is about to commence, in the month following after the summer solstice, on the last day but one of the year, shall meet in some temple, and calling God to witness, shall dedicate one judge from every magistracy to be their first-fruits, choosing in each office him who seems to them to be the best, and whom they deem likely to decide the causes of his fellow-citizens during the ensuing year in the best and holiest manner.  And when the election is completed, a scrutiny shall be held in the presence of the electors themselves, and if any one be rejected another shall be chosen in the same manner.  Those who have undergone the scrutiny shall judge the causes of those who have declined the inferior courts, and shall give their vote openly.  The councillors and other magistrates who have elected them shall be required to be hearers and spectators of the causes; and any one else may be present who pleases.  If one man charges another