renders most of the conclusions of the ordinary economists valueless.  Economic science, in its generally accepted form, bases all its reasonings on the behaviour of the so-called “economic man”—­that is to say, a being from whom those who reason about him exclude all operative desires except that of economic gain.  But such a being, say the socialists, is a mere abstraction.  He has no counterpart among living, loving, idealising, aspiring men.  Real men are susceptible of the desire of gain, no doubt; but this provides them only with one motive out of many; and there are others which, as experience amply shows us, are, when they are given unimpeded play, far stronger.  I do not know whether socialists have ever used the following parallel; but if they have not it expresses their position better than they have expressed it themselves.  They argue virtually that, in respect of the desire for exceptional gain, able men are comparable to victims of the desire for alcohol.  If alcohol is obtainable, such men will insist on obtaining it.  They will constantly fix their thoughts on it; no other fluid will satisfy them.  But if it is placed altogether beyond their reach, they will be compelled by the force of circumstances to drink lemonade, tea, or even plain water instead.  In time they will come to drink them with the same avidity; and their health and their powers of enjoyment will be indefinitely improved in consequence.  In the same way, it is argued, the monopolists of business ability, though, so long as it is possible for them to appropriate a considerable share of their products, they will insist on getting this share, and will not exert themselves otherwise, need only be placed under conditions which will render such gain impossible, and at once they will find out that there exist other inducements which will prove before long to be no less efficacious.

Such is the general argument of the modern school of socialists; but they do not leave it in this indeterminate form.  They have, to their own satisfaction, worked it out in detail, and claim that they are able to demonstrate from the actual facts of human nature precisely what the character of the new inducements will be.

It may be looked upon as evidence of the methodical and quasi-scientific accuracy with which modern socialists have set themselves to discuss this question of motive that the thought of all of them has moved along the same lines, and that what all of them fix upon as a substitute for the desire of exceptional pecuniary gain is one or other, or all, of a few motives actually in operation, and notoriously effective in certain spheres of activity.

These motives practically resolve themselves into four, which have been classified as follows by Mr. Webb or one of his coadjutors: 

“The mere pleasure of excelling,” or the joy of the most powerful in exercising their powers to the utmost.

“The joy in creative work,” such as that which the artist feels in producing a great work of art.