management of its own affairs.  But a state of war—­for the English tribes fought each other as well as fought the Britons—­made a strong central government necessary.  For this reason the leader of each tribe was made king.  At first he was chosen, at large, by the entire tribe; later, unless there was some good reason for a different choice, the King’s eldest son was selected as his successor.  Thus the right to rule was practically fixed in the line of a certain family descent.

The ruler of each of these petty kingdoms acted as commander-in-chief in war, and as supreme judge in law.

3.  The Witenagemot, or General Council.

In all other respects the King’s authority was limited—­except when he was strong enough to get his own way—­by the Witenagemot, or General Council.  This body consisted of the chief men of each kingdom acting in behalf of its people.[1] IT exercised the following powers:  (1) It elected the King, and if the people confirmed the choice, he was crowned. (2) If the King proved unsatisfactory, the Council might depose him and choose a successor. (3) The King, with the consent of the Council, made the laws,—­that is, he declared the customs of the tribe. (4) The King, with the Council, appointed the chief officers of the kingdom (after the introduction of Christianity this included the bishops); but the King alone appointed the sheriff, to represent him and collect the revenue in each shire. (5) The Council confirmed or denied grants of portions of the public lands made by the King to private persons. (6) The Council acted as the high court of justice, the King sitting as supreme judge. (7) The Council, with the King, discussed all questions of importance,—­such as the levying of taxes, and the making of treaties; smaller matters were left to the towns, hundreds, and shires to settle for themselves.  After the consolidation of the different English kingdoms into one, the Witenagemot expanded into the National Council.  In it we see “the true beginning of the Parliament of England.”

[1] The Witenagmot (i.e. the Meeting of the Witan, or Wise Men, S80), says Stubbs ("Select Charters"), represented the people, although it was not a collection of representatives.

4.  How England became a United Kingdom; Influence of the Church and of
   the Danish Invasions.

For a number of centuries Britain consisted of a number of little rival kingdoms, almost constantly at war with each other.  Meanwhile missionaries from Rome had introduced Christianity, 597.  Through the influence of Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury (668), the clergy of the different hostile kingdoms met in general Church councils.[2] This religious unity of action prepared the way for political unity.  The Catholic Church—­the only Christian Church (except the Greek Church) then existing—­made men feel that their highest interests were one; it “created the nation” (S48).