In the meantime, the khedive was not inactive in taking measures to prevent the advent of a confirmed foreign control.  He created a constitutional ministry, upon whom the responsibility rested for the different branches of the administration.  He likewise fomented an outburst of feeling among the Moslems against the foreign element in the constitutional ministry.  This was intended to strengthen the pro-Egyptian element in the government, and Ismail thus hoped to demonstrate to the European Powers the uselessness of attempting to subordinate the Egyptians to foreign methods of finance and control.  Ismail subsequently dismissed the ministry, and soon afterwards the controllers themselves.  Knowing well the jealousy which existed between England and France, he believed that there was a chance that he might successfully play off one Power against the other.  If the Moslems had not been so severely oppressed by taxation, and Ismail had acted with courage and firmness, it is probable that he might have held his own, and Egypt might have refused to again accept the dual control.

Bismarck now intervened, and hinted to the sultan that he would receive the support of the Powers, and Abdul Hamid immediately sent a telegram to the Egyptian government that Ismail Pasha was deposed from the khedivate.  At this moment his courage gave way, and Ismail surrendered his throne to his son Tewfik.

[Illustration:  195.jpg THE KHEDIVE TEWFIK]

Tewfik had the misfortune to enter upon a doleful heritage of an empty treasury, a starving people, and an army ready to mutiny.  There were now two parties in Egypt.  The military movement was of the least importance.  The superior posts in the army had been occupied by Circassians since the days of Mehemet Ali.

196 THE BRITISH INFLUENCE IN EGYPT

Slave boys were bought and trained as officers.  The number and quality of the Circassians had deteriorated, but they still held the most important posts.  The fellaheen officers, under Arabi, who had been brought to protest against reductions in the military establishment, now claimed that the Circassians should make way for the Egyptians.  Together with this military dissatisfaction was also a strong civil movement towards national reform, which included a number of serious and sensible administrative reforms, which have since been carried out.  Arabi Pasha was the leader of the National Party, and had hopes of convincing fair-minded people of the justice of their cause; but many influences, some good and some bad, were at work simultaneously to divert him from constitutional methods towards making his appeal to the violent and fanatical element.