copied from the collections from Beni Hasan and El Bersheh; others are from coffins of later periods, and have only paleographical interest; and others are from earlier coffins in the British Museum.  But the flower of the collection consists in exquisite drawings of sculptured hieroglyphics, sometimes with traces of colour, from the tomb of Phtahhotep at Saqqara, supplemented by a few from other tombs in the same neighbourhood, and from the pyramid of Papi I. These were all copied on the spot in 1895—­96.

The only critical list of hieroglyphics with their powers published recently is that of Erman, printed in his “Grammar.”  The system by which he classifies the values—­obscured in the English edition by the substitution of the term of “ideograph” for Wortzeichen (word-sign)—­displays the author’s keen insight into the nature of hieroglyphic writing, and the list itself is highly suggestive.

In the case of an altogether different system of ancient writing that has come down to us,—­the old cuneiform syllabary of the Assyrians,—­dictionaries, glossaries, and other works of a grammatical character have been preserved to the present day.  Documents such as these are, of course, of material aid in regard to obscure texts, but in the case of the Egyptian writing the only surviving native word-list is the Sign Papyrus of Tanis,* which is, unfortunately, of the Roman Period, when the original meanings of the signs had been well-nigh forgotten.

     * Egypt Exploration Fund, Ninth Memoir, 1889-1890.  This is
     an extra volume, now out of print.

It has its own peculiar interest, but seldom furnishes the smallest hint to the seeker after origins.  The famous “Hieroglyphics of Horapollo” occasionally contains a reminiscence of true hieroglyphics, but may well be a composition of the Middle Ages, embodying a tiny modicum of half-genuine tradition that had survived until then.

Scattered throughout Egyptological literature there are, as may be imagined, many attempts at explaining individual signs.  But any endeavour to treat Egyptian hieroglyphics critically, to ascertain their origins, the history of their use, the original distinction or the relationship of signs that resemble each other, reveals how little is really known about them.  For study, good examples showing detail and colouring at different periods are needed, and the evidence furnished by form and colour must be checked by examination of their powers in writing.

In investigating the powers of the uses of the signs, dictionaries give most important aid to the student.  The key-words of the meanings, viz., the names of the objects or actions depicted, are often exceedingly rare in the texts.  Doctor Brugsch’s great Dictionary (1867-82) frequently settles with close accuracy the meanings of the words considered in it, supplying by quotations the proof of his conclusions.*