So it went on for a long time.  The workers did not know any better than that they were there for the purpose of being swindled out of their very lives.  But gradually, even among them, and especially in the factory districts, where contact with the more intelligent operatives could not fail of its effect, there arose a spirit of opposition to the shameless oppression of the “coal kings.”  The men began to form Unions and strike from time to time.  In civilised districts they joined the Chartists body and soul.  The great coal district of the North of England, shut off from all industrial intercourse, remained backward until, after many efforts, partly of the Chartists and partly of the more intelligent miners themselves, a general spirit of opposition arose in 1843.  Such a movement seized the workers of Northumberland and Durham that they placed themselves at the forefront of a general Union of coal miners throughout the kingdom, and appointed W. P. Roberts, a Chartist solicitor, of Bristol, their “Attorney General,” he having distinguished himself in earlier Chartist trials.  The Union soon spread over a great majority of the districts; agents were appointed in all directions, who held meetings everywhere and secured new members; at the first conference of delegates, in Manchester, in 1844, there were 60,000 members represented, and at Glasgow, six months later, at the second conference, 100,000.  Here all the affairs of the coal miners were discussed and decisions as to the greater strikes arrived at.  Several journals were founded, especially the Miners’ Advocate, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for defending the rights of the miners.  On March 31st, 1844, the contracts of all the miners of Northumberland and Durham expired.  Roberts was empowered to draw up a new agreement, in which the men demanded:  (1) Payment by weight instead of measure; (2) Determination of weight by means of ordinary scales subject to the public inspectors; (3) Half-yearly renewal of contracts; (4) Abolition of the fines system and payment according to work actually done; (5) The employers to guarantee to miners in their exclusive service at least four days’ work per week, or wages for the same.  This agreement was submitted to the “coal kings,” and a deputation appointed to negotiate with them; they answered, however, that for them the Union did not exist, that they had to deal with single workmen only, and should never recognise the Union.  They also submitted an agreement of their own which ignored all the foregoing points, and was, naturally, refused by the miners.  War was thus declared.  On March 31st, 1844, 40,000 miners laid down their picks, and every mine in the county stood empty.  The funds of the Union were so considerable that for several months a weekly contribution of 2s. 6d. could be assured to each family.  While the miners were thus putting the patience of their masters to the test, Roberts organised with incomparable perseverance